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On July 1st, BC Transit, a crown corporation responsible for coordinating transit in the Metro Vancouver region, will be offering free rides to all riders across the region. The company will be partnering with sponsors, including the Vancouver Whitecaps and the Vancouver Aquarium, to provide additional free transit on Canada Day.

BC Transit buses will not charge riders a fare on any of their routes, and SkyTrain will be free all day.. Vancouver has an extensive and efficient public transit system. The bus network and Sea Buses water-bound buses that operate throughout the downtown core transport over million passengers per year.

At the same time, Vancouver has the lowest per-capita rate of auto ownership in North America.. BC Transit is the public transportation system. It is managed by the regional authorities and not controlled by BC Transit. Translink is a transportation and distribution system. The buses and the ferries are managed by the Translink and the regional authorities. If you want to travel between the regions, you will need to pay the tax.

You will need to pay this tax if you want to travel by bus or ferry. If you want to travel by car, you will also need to pay the toll. For this, you will need to install the toll highway, which is called the pay-to-pay..

As a public transportation provider, Yes We can. They Running a Regular Schedule here in Translink, in this day. The transit system in Vancouver is quite well-developed despite that it is not very well known. The bus system is one of the most comprehensive in North America, with over routes, including limited-stop express service, mostly operated by TransLink. The bus service is generally reliable and the network is considered fairly extensive.

SkyTrain is the only rapid transit system in Canada to use fully automated trains. Bus service starts at about 5. Bus service continues until 1. The night buses depart downtown Vancouver every 60 to 90 minutes. The Surrey Central station is the terminus for most buses that go into that city. The TransLink is the regional transportation system for Metro Vancouver. If you are residing in Vancouver, you might find it difficult to get around the city without public transportation. TransLink covers all the major public transit systems in Metro Vancouver.

You can use Compass Card or cash for payment. You can buy Compass Card online or at the nearest kiosk. If you are looking for a bus route map, you can search it online.. From Horseshoe Bay to Vancouver, you can find many bus companies that offer transportation services.

Many people drive from Horseshoe Bay to Vancouver every day and vice versa.. It allows the person to ride any Metrorail bus all day at no additional cost. The person can ride Metrorail as many times as needed throughout the day.

The person can also transfer to another bus or train without paying an additional fare. The ticket is good until AM the following day..

SkyTrain is the best way to get to downtown Vancouver from the airport. SkyTrain runs every 8 to 10 minutes during peak hours, but less frequently during other times. The SkyTrain station at Vancouver International Airport is located on level three of the domestic parking garage, two levels below the terminal. SkyTrain is easy to use. If you have a Compass Card you do not have to go to a ticket vending machine as you can load money on it at any Compass vending machine, as well as at the Compass Customer Service Centre.

TransLink is a regional transportation authority that serves the Metro Vancouver area. You can use Compass Card or cash or both. Compass Card is your best option if you plan to use public transit often. Having a Compass Card is very convenient. It saves you time and money! You can load your Compass Card with a monthly pass, and your card will be charged on the first of each month for the period you selected. You can use your Compass Card to pay for one day or for two weeks.

You can add value to your Compass Card by using the Compass Vending machines. You can add value to your Compass Card by calling You can also use your credit card to add value. You can keep your monthly pass on your card for as long as you like. You will need to pay this fee even if you have a monthly pass. If you get a cash value Compass Card, you can pay the fee by using your Compass Card..

The metro system in Vancouver, Canada is known as the SkyTrain. The SkyTrain is considered the most advanced and sophisticated metro system in Canada and is a very efficient and dependable mode of transport for the residents of Vancouver.. You can use the hours of operation of the Canada Line to plan your trip.

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By David Hall Share. Table of Contents. What is your reaction? In Love. Not Sure. You may also like. By David Hall. Leave a reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. More in: Travel. You can You may be interested. What Helps A Sinus Headache? What Gets Rid Of Headaches? Next Article: min read. Now Reading.

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While there are many theories in social work, systems theory is a unique way of addressing human behavior in terms of these multi-layered relationships and environments. The theory is premised on the idea that an effective system is based on individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of the people living in the system. Systems theory in social work is based on the idea that behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together as a system. These factors include family, friends, social settings, economic class, and the environment at home.

The theory posits that /18206.txt and other factors influence how individuals think and actand therefore examining these social structures to find ways to correct ineffective parts or adapt for missing elements of a given system can positively impact behavior. The fields of psychology, communication theory and psychiatry influence modern social work systems theory.

Howard University. University of Denver. Fordham University. Simmons University. Syracuse University. Baylor University. Case Правы. maple syrup taps for sale вот Reserve University.

It is often applied to situations where many issues connect intricately, influencing one another in various ways. Systems theory in social work is used in cases where contextual understandings of behavior will lead to продолжить most appropriate practice interventions.

Examples of issues that can be addressed include:. According to Systems Theory and Social Work by Steven Walker, in , there are three broad schools of interventions that can be identified. They are:. Structural approaches: This type of intervention stems from the technique of observing the interactive patterns in a family or system, and then a structural approach would be taken to highlight problematic situations, find problem-solving solutions to interrupt them when they are happening, and then get the individual or family to canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition different ways of acting that lead to better outcomes.

Strategic approaches: The focus with strategic canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition is on the everyday problematic interactions and solving them with properly applied cognitive thinking. Often, perceptions people have canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition their problems influence how those issues are handled.

Systemic approaches: This approach also called the Milan systemic model works with the whole family or system, rather than just the individual. The focus of this approach is to discover rules and ideologies that are sustaining dysfunctional patterns, then to encourage change in a way that avoids being perceived as blaming others within the system. According to Systems Theory and Social Workwhile there are several approaches that can be taken to meet the needs of individual clients, canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition are a few elements that can are generally part of every implementation.

It is important not to take theoretical elements and concepts to level of abstraction, where they can cease to be useful. That said, several regular elements to systems theory implementation include:.

Having a trained, licensed professional supervising therapy sessions is important. Social workers, family therapists, or registered therapists can offer feedback and suggestions, and screened observation to gain a different perspective to the social worker involved with the case. Considered by some to be the most defining characteristic of social work practice, this element of по этой ссылке theory is an ecological approach to the problems presented. The social worker asks a series of questions that are linked to the context of the presenting problem as defined in familial, professional, public, socio-economic and cultural dynamics.

The focus is on looking at difficulties from other angles in order to understand unhealthy patterns, canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition then change or avoid them. This characteristic of systems-theory-based work assumes that problematic behavior is part of a reflexive, circular motion of events and actions.

Spotting and addressing these circular processes effectively смотрите подробнее provide a positive way to move forward.

This can help people get по ссылке the blaming or scapegoating behaviors that often stagger progress. Case studies for systems theory applications in social work provide valuable insight into professional findings that can help others exponentially. Case studies provide real-world examples of how interventions can be applied, and help us better understand the interrelated factors that contribute to unhealthy actions.

Professionals can learn a lot from case studies and their valuable documentation. She had difficulty relating to many of her classmates and had trouble creating meaningful friendships.

Jennifer shared with her counselor that she often felt rejected by other kids, and she wondered what was so wrong with her. The counselor and Jennifer identified patterns in her life events that canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition to her feelings of sadness and anxiety. She saw her mother as frequently wanting Jennifer by her side, often complaining about her marriage.

Jennifer felt sorry for her mother, and frustrated with having to spend so much time with her too. There were blowups. Then Jennifer would withdraw at school. Even though her parents were not willing to be involved, Jennifer made progress with her counselor anyway. Her enhanced perspective regarding her familial relationships was possible, in part, due to the systems approach employed by her counselor. She was able to develop a healthier level of self-awareness and insight.

Through case studies canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition this one, family systems theory interventions and practices canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition a view into the context of the family unit. Deep dive examination of family triangulation, projection and emotional dysfunction allow others in the field of social work to better understand the various interrelated systems they may face in their own professional practice.

By doing this, they may gain a better understanding of the whole system in which the client lives. This is critical to enable professionals to think about the dynamics facing the individual in daily life, both inside and outside the family.

Understanding and applying systems theory is critical canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition most forms of social work, because it can offer insights that can help people break harmful habits and stop behaviors как сообщается здесь keep them from having a fuller in life.

With better insight and tools, clients can better navigate through the systems in which they live. MPH Social Work vs. Counseling Social Work vs. What is Systems Theory in Social Work? Request more info from Howard University. Research-driven faculty dedicated to making an impact on social problems Prepares you to apply social work skills across practice settings. Request more info from MSW Denver. Request more info from SocialWork Simmons. Traditional and Advanced Standing tracks Concentrate your degree in integrated practice or clinical practice.

Request more info from Syracuse University. Ethically integrates faith and social work practice Specialize in clinical practice or community practice. Request more info from MSW Baylor. Examples of issues that can be addressed include: School Trauma: According to School Social Work Association of Canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition SSWAA general systems theory, along with theories of human behavior can help school social workers assist students affected by the complex interrelated factors associated with traumatic issues occurring in the school setting that impact childhood development and educational /26295.txt. Depression, Bipolar Disorder and Anxiety: This treatment approach can be helpful for these types of mental health conditions, and family systems therapy in particular has also been shown to help individuals and family members better control and cope.

Eating Disorders: Research has shown that there can be positive outcomes for individuals who seek help when suffering with anorexia, bulimia or some other type of eating disorder. One study found that family-systems-theory approaches significantly helped participants continue to experience full remission of the eating disorder one full year after the end of therapy.

Risky Behaviors: Children or adults who are exhibiting risky behaviors, such as drug abuse and unprotected sex may be able to connect with treatments and alternatives to dangerous activities when professionals can conduct closer examinations. This may sometimes be in conjunction with other social work theories.

Intervention with Systems Theory According to Systems Theory and Social Work by Steven Walker, in , there are three broad schools of interventions that can be identified. They are: Structural approaches: This type of intervention stems from the technique of observing the interactive patterns in a family or system, and then a structural approach would be taken to highlight problematic situations, find problem-solving solutions to interrupt them when they are happening, and then get the canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition or family to try different ways of acting that lead to better outcomes.

Supervision Having a trained, licensed professional supervising therapy sessions is important. Context of Problems Considered by some to be the most defining characteristic of social work practice, this element of system theory is an ecological approach to the problems presented. Circularity and Patterns This characteristic of systems-theory-based work assumes that problematic behavior is part of a reflexive, circular motion of events and actions.

Canada day vancouver island’s wilderness systems theory definition.What is the General Systems Theory? A Definition and Examples

In some families they are allowed per day a quart of rice, some palm oil, and otherwise well fed. In other families they are poorly fed from mere scraps of rice and cassada [sic]. In others again they are not only worked nearly naked, but half starved. And this flogging, kicking and cuffing is done to a shameful extent by upstart boys, scolding, brainless women, and gentlemen of rank and standing, calling themselves Christians.

The next year, when the story finished publication in the National Era at the beginning of April and was subsequently published as a novel, emigrated, and in , as its immense popularity continued, there were emigrants. It became an enormously popular tale of the injustices of slavery. Uncle Tom, an almost Christ-like model of goodness and charity, was a house slave who was reluctantly sold by his first owners.

Ultimately, Simon Legree, a tyrannical overseer, beat Uncle Tom to death after he had exemplified many heart-rending examples of generosity and heroism in the community. The novel is believed to have been a major cause of the Civil War. It popularized the abolitionist movement in the United States. Today, the term Uncle Tom is used pejoratively to describe a black American who is too deferential to whites.

This group and their offspring have an antipathy towards African Liberians. In this essay, I use the terms that were most commonly used in nineteenth-century discourse about Liberia and other proposed and established colonies for emancipated slaves and free blacks, colonization as in the American Colonization Society and emigrants the word that Augustus Washington and others used to designate nonnative African settlers of Liberia. By doing so, I do not mean to suggest that Liberia was or is not an instance of settler colonialism or to ignore the complications of how this instance of settler colonialism motivated by racial nationalism and an idea of racial identity with native Africans failed to materialize in practice.

For a helpful timeline of important publications and their lifespans in the limited print culture of early Liberia, see Momo K. Rogers Sr. For decades, the most significant scholarship on Liberia and the colonization movement was comprised of P. The American Colonization Society established Liberia as a colony in ; it became an independent republic in See also Robert B.

Eric J. Letter of M. Lynch, Edward W. Edward W. Dinius The Camera and the Press, introd. According to Staudenraus ibid. This question has replaced the famous: How are you? As a transnational signifier, race is ambivalent and indeterminate, but it also accrues concrete associations in particular cultural contexts. The fictional story plays with these tensions by questioning what constitutes blackness and who can understand and interpret the black experience.

Unable to speak English, they attempt to communicate with her in a French black dialect, which she does not understand. It might also imply that Stowe, as a white woman like her white French translators , did not really speak the language of Caribbeans and African Americans, despite her celebrity in France as a kindred advocate for abolition.

In January , Le charivari humorously portrayed the rival plays in competition: a cartoon shows two theater managers fighting over Uncle Tom in a tug-of-war fig. It ran for twenty-nine nights. Each of the playwrights approached the act of adaptation with different aims, and their texts display crucial differences, which I will discuss in further detail below. In each of the plays, this white male character protects Elisa from the slave catchers, despite his awareness of the illegality of his actions.

Furthermore, the theme of the education and civilization of the slaves was played up by each of the adaptations, discussed in reviews, and reinforced by the onstage semiotics of race and gender.

The metaphor of paternalism, which was a common trope for understanding slavery in France and its Caribbean colonies, pervaded the remaking and reception of the Uncle Tom story on the French stage. The trope of fathering operated at the levels of both individual characters and larger ideologies of national politics.

Whereas the play by Dumanoir and Dennery and that by De Beauplan reinforced the status quo of this paternalist vision of slavery and abolition, Texier and Wailly questioned it. French-language literature, from the Enlightenment philosophers to the French romantics of the nineteenth century, had long debated and criticized the institution of slavery albeit often ambivalently.

White women and writers of color defended the novel. Saint-Remy was unequivocal in his praise of Stowe. The texts of the eleven different French translations of the novel already present various modifications and transformations, many of which appear to be ideologically driven. In his preface to his play Toussaint Louverture, Lamartine positioned melodrama as a key genre for popularizing black emancipation. For example, an play by Dumanoir and AnicetBourgeois, Le docteur noir The black doctor , tells the story of a talented mixed-race doctor who cannot be with the white woman he loves, due to the racism of her mother, an antediluvian marquise.

In contrast, the Uncle Tom plays portrayed Elisa as the pure, objectified victim, but they also made her sexuality a sensationalist theme. In the play by Dumanoir and Dennery and that by De Beauplan, her sexual attractiveness and desirability are highly exaggerated.

In addition to the antislavery message, the playwrights also used their Uncle Tom plays as means of commenting on other social issues, particularly French censorship of the theater.

Out of necessity, the plays significantly decreased the number of different settings and combined several characters. In the play by Dumanoir and Dennery and that by De Beauplan, this character is Senator Bird, who is obsessed with the law. Table 1. It is no coincidence that the most popular adaptation, that by Dumanoir and Dennery, was also the most overtly masculinized and secularized. The playwrights did not transfer Uncle Tom from one context to another so much as play with its palimpsestic qualities.

This allowed the French melodramas to figure Uncle Tom as, simultaneously, 1 a view into American slavery, 2 an opportunity to comment on current French politics, and 3 a transnational, transferrable parable for all former slaveholding nations.

To be sure, France profited considerably from the enterprise of slavery. In the eighteenth century, the colony of SaintDomingue which would become Haiti rose far above all other islands in terms of productivity and profits. By midcentury, it was producing more sugar for France than was produced for England on all of the British islands combined. In , it ranked fourth in sugar production.

Slavery was originally abolished in the French colonies in , with the French Revolution, but Napoleon reinstated slavery in The second and final abolition of slavery was decreed in , along with the Second Republic.

Shortly thereafter, in , Napoleon III declared himself emperor and granted himself dictatorial powers. French theatergoers could thus see the Uncle Tom plays as both speaking to and dissociated from French concerns. On the one hand, France had profited immensely from slavery, and its final abolition was just five years old. To translate American culture, customs, and realities for French target spectators, the adaptations relied on theatrical devices such as picturesque scenic design and music evoking the landscapes and sounds of the United States.

Because married women were thought to be the most fertile and because France was anxious over the need to respect Christian values, enslaved men and women were encouraged to marry each other. If two slaves from different plantations were in love, masters would often make arrangements so that they could be together. They could force enslaved men and women to marry or could separate them, as they saw fit.

Domesticating translation choices were also treated self-reflexively onstage. When discussing slave sales, the characters drink eau-de-vie, a fruit brandy and French specialty. Does it come from France? The plays explain the term and its U. I call you Uncle Tom. The French playwrights may have been inspired by the ways in which Stowe associated France with emancipation and education, but they do not reproduce such small details.

The concept of paternalism was a prominent metaphor for making sense of slavery in nineteenth-century France. Like the broader rhetoric, paternalism in the French plays operates on both the national and individual family levels and involves slippage between the father figure and the nation as father.

Paternalistic Melodramas In this final section, I offer a closer view into the French melodramas. The published plays constitute my most important archival source, since the play text is the most complete trace of the cultural and ideological translation to which I have access.

It is also important to note that the social life of the text extended beyond the evening of the performance. During the nineteenth century, as Angela Pao points out, there was a great demand for printed texts, which were often read aloud socially, facilitating ongoing engagement with a play after its performance. First, I examine the mixed-race characters, which serve to stress the arbitrariness of race and are linked to the sensationalistic theme of interracial sex.

At a time when the social category of race was being delineated, these mixed-race characters served to question the meanings of race.

Mixed-race characters additionally implied a history of interracial sex, which became a sensationalistic theme. In these cases, the black and brown makeup served not only as a signifier of racial difference but also as a reminder of the arbitrariness of biological race as opposed to education. These characters, in other words, were portrayed as both white and black, transgressively slipping between the two social categories. The playwrights could exploit the sensationalist potential of a mixed-race woman onstage while conveying an antislavery political message.

Given that her father is black and her mother would then, probably, be white , her sensationalist appeal as a mixed-race woman was less powerful and perhaps even offputting, given the general anxiety surrounding sexual and romantic relationships between a white woman and a black man. When Locker tries to recapture Elisa, Kentucki their version of Bird asks Elisa publicly whether she is a slave, requesting that she simply give a yes or no answer.

When she denies her enslaved status, Kentucki insists that Locker must provide evidence. Finally, you are not mixed-race, because I, whose race is pure, I touch your hand. A mixed-race slave owner or trader was a more realistic scenario in the French context, given that mixed-race men commonly owned slaves in the French Caribbean colonies.

In fact, free people of color in Saint-Domingue owned one-third of the plantations, one-fourth of the slaves, and one-third of real estate. In his adaptation, Haley was formerly a slave on the same plantation as Tom, where Haley was known as Samuel. Tom and Samuel were childhood friends.

One of their mothers cut the dollar in half and hung one half around each of their necks. Harris wishes to own Elisa. When she is about to be sold on the auction block, Harris menacingly states that he finds her more beautiful when she is in desperation and tears. Haley tries to entice Elisa with power and material items, but she is uninterested.

As the ultimate object of paternalism, Elisa also becomes a sexual object. Before the bidding begins, the evil Harris declares that Elisa will belong to him, even if he must pay twice her value. Stage directions script repeated instances of Elisa swooning, crying, and falling on a chair. He thanks Bird for having set the terms of the duel for him and then fights Harris himself. Interracial sex and the fungibility of race were together associated with Uncle Tom not only on but off the Parisian stages.

Machanette, having forgotten the black makeup hidden under his shirt, went to help one of the women and consequently almost asphyxiated her from the fumes. Through several comic characters, the plays suggest that before black slaves are freed, they need to be educated by their masters.

Onstage dialogue links the black comic characters with monkeys on stage. The patois invented by Dumanoir and Dennery incorporated Creole words and used incorrect grammar. By the devil! Bengali serves as an example of a slave who should not have been freed before being schooled.

Early on in the play, he states that he has never learned how to bring up his children and thus relies on his good master Shelby to do that. Adolphe, who is comically extravagant, is a perpetual child. He wishes not for his freedom but, rather, to belong to a master worthy of his comically refined tastes for riches and luxuries. Tom, Elisa, Georges, and Henri are consequently able to reach Canada.

Critics lauded the well-known actor Chilly for his portrayal of Bird. A line drawing shows Chilly in his Senator Bird costume, with the rifle he uses to shoot the slave catchers, despite the illegality of his actions fig. This judgment of fathers is symbolically linked with geography.

Whereas Stowe was careful to avoid equating the South with slavery and villainy, the French stage adaptations drew clear lines between the U. North and Canada, associated with progress, and the U. When called on to fight Harris in a duel, Bird comments that Southern duels are barbarous and ferocious, unlike the duels common in old Europe. The play by Dumanoir and Dennery and that by De Beauplan show how slaves can be put in precarious situations when their good masters die or are forced to sell them due to extenuating circumstances, such as debt.

Texier and Wailly once again question the paternalist discourse by presenting a more ambivalent view of the so-called good master. However, Tom is portrayed as not a powerful father but, rather, an ineffective one. Due to his Christian zeal, he is tragically unable to protect Elisa. When Kentucki announces that the slave catchers must prove that Elisa is a slave, Elisa almost escapes. When Tom is asked to swear on the Bible, he cannot help but admit that Elisa is his daughter and a slave from the Shelby planation.

Transatlantic Paternalism All the plays portray Elisa as in need of not one father but several. In each of the plays, a community of mostly men is mobilized to save Elisa. Elisa asks where they are. Promised land, free land! Revived, Tom kneels by the body of Harris killed in the duel by Georges and asks God to pardon the dead man. He experiences what he deems a conflict between his heart and his head. This preoccupation with the law served several purposes.

It was a judgment of the United States, both for the Fugitive Slave Act and for having not yet abolished slavery; with abolition in its colonies in , France had already resolved the tensions that plagued Bird. His conflict was also a reflection of a particular tension in French law. In plays that self-reflexively presented themselves as cultural translations, the theme of the law served to position France on a global topography, in relation to other slaveholding nations, particularly the United States.

As Lucas points out, at a time when U. French law at that time repressed theater artists, but the plays slyly suggested that performance might be a tool for changing the political situation.

While critically different from one another, all three French stage adaptations of Uncle Tom put the spotlight on Elisa, portrayed other black characters as children in need of education, and showed a white male hero who respects, defies, and rewrites the law.

These plays made meaning from the Uncle Tom story by staging, reinforcing, and contesting the predominant metaphor for understanding slavery in nineteenth-century France: paternalism. All otherwise unattributed translations throughout this essay are mine.

Meer, 8. Edmond Texier and L. The French text is available through Gallica. Theater announcements consulted via Gallica, BnF. Birdoff, Meer, 9. Doris Y. Lucas, Stowe recalled receiving numerous visits from members of former French abolitionist organizations. For investigations of French-language antislavery writing and its relation to race, gender, and the debates surrounding cultural memory, see Doris Y.

I thank Doris Kadish for sharing this source. McCormick, Scholars have nonetheless nuanced this characterization of the U. Alphonse de Lamartine, preface in Toussaint Louverture, ed. See ibid. Quoted in Pao, 65; see also Krakovitch, Pao, Texier and Wailly, De Beauplan, 5. This total more accurately represents the number of enslaved Africans taken to both Antillean islands.

Guadeloupe acquired most of its slaves via Martinique rather than from French carriers arriving from Africa. See Miller; Peabody; Reinhardt. De Beauplan, 2. De Beauplan, 10; Texier and Wailly, 4.

De Beauplan, 8; Texier and Wailly, 1, 8. Texier and Wailly, 1. Texier and Wailly, 2. See also Texier and Wailly, 2. Kadish, Fathers, Daughters, and Slaves, 2. Garraway, Richard D.

Chalaye, Dumanoir and Dennery, 2. De Beauplan, 1. Reinhardt, See reviews by J. De Beauplan, 37, See, for example, A. Dennery and Dumanoir], 20 January , Her fainting becomes a sort of tragic flaw in Texier and Wailly, since it enables the slave catchers to take Henri from her. See, for example, Texier and Wailly, Texier and Wailly, 9.

Vinet, paraphrased in Lucas, De Beauplan, Bird also explains that slaves are property recognized by the law Most traffickers evaded their blockade,5 and ten thousand Africans were brought illegally to Cuba annually in the s and s. The continued breach of treaties had strained relations with England but was a calculated risk. I argue that this theatrical adaptation was a response to the crisis over American expansionist intentions in Cuba and was a cultural and political critique of the slave trade to Cuba.

The second edition and six other translations also sold quickly. These four newspapers were among the eight with the largest subscription rates in Spain. Basing his calculations on the rates of twelve to fifteen thousand copies per newspaper or installment edition and 3.

With a literate population of 3,, in Spain in , this novel therefore reached approximately 5 to 20 percent of all potential readers, or 1 to 5 percent of the entire national population of 15,, In months, the character and the novel were frequently referred to in the periodical press, even in magazines that never fully discussed the work. In a time when politics was reported as creatively as novels were written, works of fiction were as vigilantly censored as political articles.

Indeed, by the Royal Order of 23 April , the two genres were to be read, analyzed, and censored indistinguishably. The subsequent serialization of the work in newspapers is not only evidence of its popularity but also an illustration of its political use beyond abolitionism. A vibrant literary circle in Cuba was engaging with this issue. The development of the Cuban novel was shaped by the cultural tensions inherent in the issues of slavery and empire.

Haley did more than incite pity for slaves and suggest an analogy between those in the southern United States and Cuba. It refocused criticism on Spanish overseas policies, because the illicit slave trade had helped the Cuban slave economy thrive and thus make the island so attractive to U.

Haley was written in early , approved by government censors in April, and first staged in Cadiz in October of the same year. By midcentury, Spain was nearly bankrupt, and its control over its wealthiest colony was precarious. Meanwhile, the United States unofficially urged Cubans to separate from Spain and transfer their allegiance to Washington. On 29 October , the Spanish public read that the government had begun sending reinforcements to Cuba.

They reported that the U. Very soon we will see the subterfuges that American orators employ to justify it. Near the end of the Fillmore administration, El heraldo among several other Spanish papers published U. In the eyes of the relatively noninterventionist Fillmore administration, a Spanish Cuba was detrimental to the American definition of civilization and was grounds for its seizure by the United States.

But whereas Fillmore was vocally against an armed invasion of Cuba, his successor, Pierce, was correctly seen in Spain as actively pro-annexationist. But Spaniards read about the slave traders in the Atlantic and knew exactly how the slave economy and conservation of the island were being secured. Poetic traditions aside, they were fully aware that the traffickers were characters far more complex than romanticized, free-spirited pirates and, moreover, that the political consequences of their exploits were grave.

The United Kingdom abolished the slave trade in and outlawed slavery in its colonies in ; France criminalized the trade definitively in but maintained slave labor until ; the United States had perhaps the widest spread, outlawing the transatlantic slave trade in but seeing the demise of legal slavery only at the conclusion of the Civil War.

International pressure on Spain to cease slavery was not great during the mid-nineteenth century, and even the fiercest of abolitionists, such as Richard Madden, could only indict Spain for infraction of treaties dealing with the transatlantic slave trade: slavery was an internal matter. Most Spaniards had never seen a slave.

The first two acts of this adaptation closely match episodes from the novel in characterization, dialogue, and action; the second two acts radically invert character development, offer new dialogue, and redirect the plot.

The first real change that pointedly implicates the Spanish audience occurs at the end of act 1. Her speech causes the Spanish public to draw her from the fictional Kentuki and place her in their historical present. She obliges the merchant class of Cadiz to consider her plight according to Spanish social mores and to imagine her as a member of their community. Following dialogue and action taken directly from the novel, the plot assumes a new path and ideological purpose in act 4, adapting the story of American slavery more into a Hispanic consideration of the slave trade.

Lest the moral agenda of Haley remain unclear, the dramatists indicate that the entire cast is to be reintroduced in front of an empty slave ship during the final scenes of the play. Act 4 opens with a passage that echoes a famous scene in the contemporary play Don Juan Tenorio. Moreover, both Haley and Don Juan transgress social mores, gamble with the fates of their souls, and are saved while repenting in their last breaths.

The specter of Don Juan in the Haley character furthers the cultural adaptation by suggesting a parallel between the nineteenthcentury trafficker and a famous literary figure born in and representative of the Spanish Golden Age and the height of the Spanish Empire.

But Haley too can become a hero of his society through repentance and death. Beside the traffickers, the entire Shelby-Wilson clan unites on stage, while a distraught Elisa cries at her separation not only from Enrique but also, remarkably, from her owner, Emilia Shelby. Jorge suddenly arrives, to responsibly halt the chain of events. In the disguise of a Spanish Creole landowner, he legally purchases Enrique from Haley, thus reuniting father and son, guaranteeing the Shelby family honor, and returning a slave Elisa to her benevolent mistress and her prescribed place in society.

Regarded as a Spanish landowner, he conforms to good slave law, but once he rashly unmasks himself as a runaway slave, he becomes a volatile element to be subdued. Jorge draws his pistols to escape from his wife, his owner, and society, but Loker promptly attempts to disarm him.

In a classic deus ex machina, one of the guns accidentally discharges. Seizing the opportunity to repent, he frees all slaves aboard and thus gains eternal salvation by renouncing the trade at the last possible moment. He expires, and the ideological message is again delivered, rather heavy-handedly, in the final scenes, with the death of personified traffic as the means to the reconstitution of the traditional family-based and slaveholding society.

In terms of scenery, the introduction of the buque negrero slave ship in the final act brilliantly stages the focus of international crisis. Moreover, ships are a symbol of the commercial wealth on which Cadiz was built, including the commerce in slaves during the eighteenth century. Haley is not an abolitionist play but, rather, a reformist play, concerned with the impact of the slave trader on individuals and society.

In Haley, only one victim of the illegal and immoral slave trade policies, slave society itself, is saved. Once fatally wounded, the trader begins to consider the state of his soul.

Good Heavens! I am dying! No, leave me. Captured slavers were to be brought before judges, the slaves aboard their ships set free. In his protracted death scene, Haley, like Tom, brings the witnesses of his death to Christ. Spaniards traditionally referred to themselves as cristianos Christians and to their language as cristiano Christian ; the latter term also implies speaking clearly and sensibly.

In addition to his personal rebellion, an action that suggests the violent ethnic and cultural consequences of a protracted traffic to Cuba, he points to the real political instability of a province that was beginning to reexamine its identification as Spanish. Indeed, among contemporary concerns was the question of whether Cubans were being Africanized by the trade to such a degree that they were no longer Spanish, much as the American statesman Everett had claimed.

Jorge, the false Spaniard of act 3, will thus be told to be cristiano, for according to Luna and Palomino, the rightful place of both slaves and Spanish Creole Cubans is under the control of the Spanish state. The total number of plays attributed to Palomino is eight, and Luna wrote no other known plays. The dossier on their activities as editors of the newspaper La palma The palm frond , currently stored in the provincial archive, documents a melodramatic tale of their challenges to censorship and evasion of imprisonment.

Haley was their first foray into drama, and their social earnestness is accompanied by almost schoolboyish fidelity to the basic elements of Aristotelian tragedy. Luna and Palomino did not set their play in Cuba, nor did they explicitly codify Haley as Spanish. Nevertheless, Haley represented their attempt to avoid government censorship while broaching the subject of the transatlantic slave trade. Spanish theater of the previous fifty years was replete with examples of allegorical works transparently set in the past or distant lands, and the geographic relocation in this piece was perfunctory.

In a note to readers included in the printed edition of the play, Luna and Palomino give their markedly nonliterary reason for recasting the story of American slavery as a play, claiming that theater, not the novel, is the most expedient means of instilling a new moral understanding in the public.

Nevertheless, the play coincided with more than one strain of reformist policy. His colonial strategy was informed by a desire to pacify Great Britain and gain international support for Spanish control of Cuba. Most important, he appointed a famously strict enforcer of the transatlantic slave trade treaties, the military officer Juan de la Pezuela, as captain general of Cuba, reversing a tradition since of institutionalized bribery and semiofficial tolerance of the illegal trade.

Not surprisingly, Cuban slave owners, who claimed that favorable treatment of blacks would lead to race warfare, resisted these measures. The greatest outrage committed against George and him alone is not physical but intellectual. His crowning accomplishment at the factory, where he was recognized as a talented manager, is the invention of a useful machine. For example, the anonymous author of the treatise La cuestion africana en la Isla de Cuba,.

Indeed, the primary definition of the term plagiario plagiarist or plagiary in Spain throughout the nineteenth century referred to the Roman term for kidnapping and enslaving a free person. Throughout the nineteenth century, the term plagio plagiarism was used in Cuba to refer to the enslavement of free persons. The dialogue across the Atlantic world regarding slavery and the illegal trade was not restricted to its Englishspeaking interlocutors; it had immediate consequences for Spain and Cuba.

Nevertheless, there was a concern in contemporary Spain that the general population was either uninformed about the issues of slavery and empire in part because of censorship or simply uninterested. In a period when public opinion was beginning to constitute a limited social force, public interest and concern for the conservation of the empire was considered necessary but utterly lacking.

The extent of this supposed inattention by Spaniards to the questions of slavery and empire must be reconsidered. The views on Spanish slave and traffic policies were as numerous and varied as the versions of the novel itself. First, through its multiple translations and publishing formats, the American story was multiplied into a series of adaptations and editions with varying cultural and philosophical objectives.

Mason I. Lowance Jr. Westbrook, and R. All otherwise unattributed translations in this essay are mine. Arthur F. For the most complete study of the slave trade between the late sixteenth and nineteenth centuries including ship voyages of both licit and clandestine commerce , see David Eltis, David Richardson, and Herbert S. Klein, eds. Mercedes Cabrera et al. Orihuela Barcelona: Juan Olivares, Orihuela Paris: Ignacio Boix, La choza de Tom, trans.

Ruiz Madrid: Biblioteca selecta, La choza de Tom, ed. Wenceslao Ayguals de Izco, 2nd ed. Madrid: Ayguals de Izco, These are the exact numbers for from Botrel: of a national population of 15,,, 24 percent, or 3,,, were literate. Spain, Royal Order of 23 April , art.

Civil, leg. Seguia reinando la tranquilidad en aquellas leales provincias. La Gaceta nada dice hoy acerca de estas noticias. Tranquility reigns in those loyal provinces. The Gaceta [an official publication of the government] has said nothing about this news today.

Iris M. Giuntini, was place on the index on 6 September La censura, revista mensual [Censorship, a monthly review], October See Frank J. The longer version of the novel was published in New York by N. Ponce de Leon in Correo de Barcelona, 5 April , 1. El heraldo, 22 February , 1. El heraldo, 12 January David Gies Madrid: Castalia, Luna and Palomino, 4. Leading this reexamination were several members of the Del Monte literary circle. Orovio and Mulero, El mensajero, 12 April , n.

Elaine K. Luis, El nacional, 5 March , n. Although the British and French governments had already abolished it, slavery was still rampant in the United States, Brazil, and the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico during the s, while serfdom subsisted in Russia. Are they in harmony with the sympathies of Christ?

As he traveled through the U. South, Spain, France, and back again to Cuba, Orihuela participated actively in debates against Spanish colonialism and slavery, writing pamphlets, novels, and poems that he often confronted the excesses of colonial society.

He spent the last years of his life defending the republican cause in Spain, where he presumably died in In his works cited in this essay, Orihuela never declares his Canarian descent, focusing on his social and political experiences in Cuba.

When the book that you have just conceived reached my hands, I devoured its pages; the tears that this reading elicited are the most expressive testimony of the character of the feelings that unite us. My lady, you have known how to speak to the heart, wounding its most delicate fibers. At the same time, Orihuela does not erase the particulars of his experiences in Cuba. Orihuela traces a parallel between his perceptions of slavery in Cuba and of Southern slavery, distinguishing the latter only through the idealistic reference to U.

During the s, the white Cuban elite was in the midst of producing what critics have identified as the beginnings of a national literature in the colony, under the tutelage of the wealthy man of letters Domingo del Monte. The new constitution provided the Crown with special powers over its territorial possessions, leaving Cuban-born subjects with little, if any, political agency, while Spanish administrators and merchants continued to take advantage of a burgeoning economy driven by the local sugar boom.

The colonial crackdown on the conspiracy also resulted in the arrest and exile of Domingo del Monte and many of his followers, who were deemed suspicious because of their liberal and abolitionist tendencies. Historians have clearly established, however, that Domingo del Monte and most of his associates did not participate in the conspiracy.

Writing in exile one year after the conspiracy, Del Monte expressed his fears about an impending crisis in Cuba to the Spanish ambassador in Paris. The island of Cuba finds itself today under the imminent risk of loss, not only for Spain but for the white race and the civilized world, if the Spanish government does not take forceful and immediate measures to contain the catastrophe.

Those who know Cuba have declared that the only two revolutions that can occur there are: of soldiers or blacks. What value did the representation of black subjects have, then, for the Cuban elite? These distinctions do not entail that Tanco adhered to a more radical or egalitarian vision of abolition and race relations than his peers.

An essential feature of nineteenth-century Cuban elite culture was its anxious fascination with interracial relations, particularly the mulata figure. But this vision did not include colonial reforms or political independence; such liberation was to be developed under the protection of the United States. Because of their association with the U. Looking to consolidate these relations and to eliminate the repressive colonial system under Spain, a group of Cuban plantation owners and intellectuals participated in a transnational network of rebellion with the active backing of U.

Polk, sought to incorporate the colony through diplomatic means. As David Luis-Brown has noted, a common element in the discourse of Cuban annexationism was the appropriation of the republican and cosmopolitan values that proliferated with the European revolutions of and the ascent of the French Second Republic.

Although it appears that he did not have a leading role in any of the annexationist cells, Orihuela was a clear supporter of the movement. In order to deny the existence of U. Nevertheless, they reveal where his priorities lay: in his view, political revolution and the incorporation of Cuba into the United States would necessarily precede the consideration of emancipation.

Like other Cuban intellectuals who sympathized with abolitionist and annexationist causes, Orihuela was most likely a defender of the separation of church and state. Having, naturally, an organization in which the morale was strongly predominant, together with a greater breadth and cultivation of mind than obtained among his companions, he was looked up to with great respect, as a sort of minister among them; and the simple, hearty, sincere style of his exhortations might have edified even better educated persons.

In other words, their agency as fugitives is connected directly to whiteness. His exhortations were persuasive, and they would have even enlightened persons better educated than the ones that formed part of his apostolate.

These words, it would seem, bring the text closer to the discursive register of race in Cuban society, where the definition of racial categories was and continues to be more heterogeneous and fluid than in the United States. In Cuba, as in other Latin American contexts, the word mulato does not have the pejorative connotations the English mulatto has in the United States. Also, there are numerous other Spanish terms, with both positive and negative associations, that encapsulate a wide-ranging racial continuum in which the binary opposition of black versus white is not absolute.

The other day the mistress wanted Sally to make one, just to learn, she said. However, the lack of a linguistic difference in the representation of blackness could be read as an equivalence that puts into question the racialized hierarchy of value that marks black difference as inferior: the enslaved subject expresses himself in the same language as his masters.

A popular word among the colonial elites that could have captured the intensity of this racial epithet is negrito, a condescending diminutive term used to belittle blacks.

But in all cases, Orihuela utilizes the word negro. Orihuela selects a word that does not necessarily have a pejorative connotation: its meaning in Spanish depends on the context and tone of the speaker.

For example, when the slave trader Mr. Look at us now! The translation also adds another layer of meaning through the adjective moderno. One might even venture to interpret the text literally, understanding the limitations of expressing humor across cultural boundaries.

Through the words of George, the discourse of romantic racialism reaffirms itself, with the difference that, in this context, the morality associated with blackness is not wholly inherent or natural.

Although the content of this past is not outlined overtly, one can surmise that it would precede the era of French colonialism, since the latter is identified negatively in the text.

Clare and his brother Alfred about slavery and the global upheavals of the era. As Larry J. But as he confirms in Dos palabras, his position on slavery was more complex and calculating than meets the eye. At the same time, flashes of a truly emancipatory critique erupt throughout the texts of Orihuela, evoking a spirit of anticolonial and antiracist revolution that would materialize more forcefully as the century drew to a close.

Hortense J. Stowe, Mr. Deborah E. The biographical information on Orihuela is limited, and few critical works have been published about him. Ign Boix, , 3. I have kept the Spanish forms of racial and ethnic labels in order to keep their specific meanings in the Cuban context. Mulato has the same meaning as mulatto in English, but it does not carry an inherent pejorative connotation within the wide-ranging racial continuum of Cuba.

In contrast, criollo meant born in Cuba or other parts of Spanish America; in the nineteenth century, it often functioned as a racialized category, defined as exclusively white.

As Carolyn L. The critical literature on the simultaneous emergence of a national and antislavery literary tradition in Cuba is extensive. As the example of Cuban intellectuals illustrates, this transformative aspect is not necessarily equivalent to a radical politics of emancipation or equality.

However, applied to the Cuban context, this opposition ignores that the Cuban elite that supported the abolition of slavery also produced a literary archive that criticized Spanish colonialism directly: newspapers and journals published by Cuban exiles in the United States and Europe typically included patriotic poems that often attacked Spain viciously.

Vera M. Fischer, Modernity Disavowed, Efforts to annex Cuba go back to , when John Quincy Adams famously expressed his desire to incorporate the Spanish colony into the United States.

During the s and s, most U. The classical histories of Cuban annexationism defend the liberal politics of the movement, considering its association with U. From a nationalist perspective, later Cuban historiography has situated the political discourse of filibusterismo outside the boundaries of the national culture of Cuba. Mellen Press, La Verdad, 2 November , 2. Orihuela, Dos palabras, 3.

Orihuela, Dos palabras, 4. Lawrence Venuti New York: Routledge, , Jane P. George M. This objective cannot be fully accomplished, of course, since the work of translation invariably produces a distinct text.

At the same time, however, their use or translation of American terms was informed by their own biases, including their knowledge of slavery in Moldavia.

I suggest that racial differences between Romanians and Roma during slavery were created and maintained through marriage legislation, anti-amalgamation racial intermarriage laws, and unwritten laws of sexual control and exploitation of female Roma slaves. Through his portrayal of Anghelina, Asachi challenges sexualized stereotypes of Roma women in general and slaves in particular.

Theater and printed texts created the imagined community of the Romanian nation,6 articulating the role that the revolutionaries and abolitionists imagined for the Roma in the new independent nation. I argue that the racialization of the Roma during slavery and after emancipation was performative and dependent on context. External markers of class and status distinguished Roma from non-Roma, but in most cases, it was difficult to distinguish a slave from a free person based on physical characteristics alone.

In my work, based on ethnographic research in post-socialist Romania, I discuss the performative processes of gendered and classed racialization and misrecognition through which Roma fail to access actual citizenship, both materially and symbolically.

During the nineteenth century, the situation of the Roma differed from other ethnic groups in the Balkans, including Romanians, in that there was no nationalist movement seeking to build a nation-state for this intrinsically transnational minority that spread across Europe and beyond. Descriptions of Roma slavery are exclusively written by non-Roma, and this history is part of the larger transnational history of oppression of the Roma across Europe.

As Donald E. It does not negate the past, but it does foster a rethinking of the national in the light of the newly invented spatial and temporal coordinates. There were divergent nationalist creeds among Moldavian abolitionists, as their vision of the Romanian nation differed. Asachi, of an older generation, shared the abolitionist and nationalist agendas but did not support the union and was not among the revolutionaries. Most of the readers were Romanian intellectuals, though they included a few newly freed Roma in addition to the elite.

This preface, on the history of slavery from antiquity to the present, illustrates how relevant the novel was seen to be in Moldavia, because of the presence of slavery there and in the United States.

Indeed, from the fifteenth century through the nineteenth, the territories of Moldavia and Wallachia were the only European locations where Roma or any other group were systematically enslaved.

In his translation, Codrescu introduces an explanatory note for the word abolitionist. These societies, whose members are called abolitionists, hold public meetings and publish books and newspapers to prepare public opinion against slavery; they make financial contributions and raise funds to redeem and free the Negroes. After the novel traveled to France, where slavery had been abolished, the Romanian translations from the French brought the novel back into a context where slavery was a contemporaneous reality.

The censoring of the preface shows that that these issues continued to be controversial up until the emancipation of private Roma slaves in While Moldavian abolitionists saw parallels between African American and Roma slavery, the two institutions also significantly differed.

Nevertheless, the institution was of long standing in the region: the first documents to attest the existence of Roma slavery date from the fourteenth century for Wallachia and the fifteenth century for Moldavia. Most Roma arrived in Wallachia and Moldavia in the fourteenth century, by crossing to the northern bank of the Danube to escape wars in the territories of present-day Bulgaria and Serbia.

For the dominant class in feudalism, slavery was a stable and solid institution strengthened through church support. Monastery slaves were the most numerous and the most oppressed. Translators, including Pilatte, Codrescu, and Pop, explain the state of religious belief in American society in relation to Mrs. There one is not born [into a faith]; one becomes a member of a church or a religious society. After one is introduced to the teachings of any religious society, one requests to be admitted.

Very respectable people have no shame in declaring that they do not yet belong to any church. Urechia goes one step further and explicitly critiques the hypocrisy of boyar slave owners who displayed piety and religious feelings in their public appearances. In most European contexts, Roma were minority populations known for their nomadic lifestyle and were forced to live outside or on the outskirts of cities.

The situation in Moldavia was rather different. There were five different Roma groups in the nineteenth century. Layesh, also known as Kalderash or Kelderara, were coppersmiths and the property of either boyars or monasteries. Ursara, or bear handlers, were nomads who belonged to the Crown. Most Kelderara were nomads, permitted to wander as long as they paid dues to their overlord. In summer, they traveled across the country selling various metal household items to villagers.

In winter, they withdrew near forests and lived in huts. Vatrash, the most numerous group, were agricultural workers and the property of either boyars or monasteries, and many of them were sedentary, tied to the land. From among them came the musicians renowned for fiddle playing. The Layesh, as craftspeople, had more freedom and a better material situation than the Vatrash. Among the latter, fiddle playing was the most prestigious occupation.

Chiefs, also known as bulibasha, who maintained the connection between their groups and the majority population, including the slave owners, were better off than the average slave. For centuries, Moldavia and Wallachia had been under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, which named the princes who would rule the principalities. The latter were also under the Russian protectorate and had limited autonomy.

Following the revolutions in Austria, Hungary, and elsewhere in Western Europe, a Wallachian and Moldavian revolution sparked. The peasantry, whose folk traditions were espoused as the embodiment of the Romanian national character, lived in extremely precarious conditions, while the Roma were enslaved and marginal to the national imagination.

Joint Russian-Ottoman military action quashed the revolution in both Moldavia and Wallachia, and Russia remained the protector of Wallachia and Moldavia, while the Ottoman Empire continued to be the nominal overlord. The evidence of this important cross-cultural comparison is found in the Romanian-language theater repertoire of the period.

The production of Bernardin de St. On 19 October , the production of Mulatto by Matei Millo an actor and director from a boyar family and considered a founder of modern Romanian theater represented the fate of black colonial slaves. The actors played in blackface and made several references to the Roma slaves in Moldavia. The conspicuous association between slaves in the French colonies and Roma slaves led the estate-owning boyars to regard the play as an attack on them.

They petitioned the Crown, which not only closed the show but dismantled the troupe, on the grounds that its members were poorly skilled in the art of theater. Romanian-language theater played a key role in the creation of the imagined community of the nation and, to a lesser extent, in representing and critiquing Roma slavery. Featuring characters dressed in peasant clothes and speaking Romanian, this performance marked the birth of Romanian theater.

While the prince headed both the French- and Romanian-language repertoires, Millo was functionally in charge of the Romanianlanguage theater. The theater moved to an improvised location, in the house of the Moldavian ruler Mihail Sturdza. Censorship laid out the rules for the performances. For example, only approved scripts could be performed onstage, with no improvised additions, and the aga chief of local police was responsible for making sure this rule was respected.

The title character, played by Matei Millo in drag, presents a stereotypical version of the Roma woman as the frightening old hag. It tells of the love between a female Roma slave, Anghelina, and a Romanian man, Cimbru, in a union that was illegal at the time. However, in the play, the two lovers are not both slaves: one is Roma, the other Romanian.

Anghelina, described as a beautiful but dumb young woman, has a twin sister, Ardela, described as ugly but smart. The boyar arranges for Anghelina to marry Gevrila, the blind son of the bulibasha, the head of the slave community owned by a boyar, and puts Nistor, his Romanian bailiff, in charge of the protocols.

Anghelina and Cimbru are in love, despite the illegality of their relationship. While the exploitation of Roma slaves mirrors that of African American slaves, marriage between Roma and lower-class non-Roma represents a specific aspect of Roma slavery. Tufoi is a blacksmith who manufactures objects for the boyar, including punishment tools for runaway slaves, an irony that does not escape him.

The play exposes the absurdity of the anti-amalgamation laws, which Nistor recites. Did you all follow that? If time permits, you can head into the Rockies from here and hook up with our Best of the West tour Click here.

Vancouver calls its chow West Coast cuisine, meaning seafood-based with local produce cradling it; sushi is also much-adored. The Niagara Peninsula pours reds, whites and very fine ice wines.

The Okanagan Valley is on par with all manner of wines, plus cherry, peach and apricot orchards. The Cowichan Valley on Vancouver Island also joined the party recently, thanks to its small wineries and cheese-, cider- and brandy-makers.

Foodies around the globe salivate over giant scallops from Digby; moist, briny oysters from Malpeque Bay, and squirty lobsters from towns such as North Rustico on crustacean-crawling Prince Edward Island. Winter or summer, Canada is a land of action, with certain towns exceptionally well-geared year-round. In the west, Whistler reigns supreme.

Tofino amazes with its surfing, kayaking, whale spotting and storm-watching. In Ontario, Blue Mountain offers a batch of activities similar to western cousin Whistler, along with caving and kayaking. Outfitters at Algonquin Provincial Park suit up visitors to canoe, moose-watch, even dogsled. Further east, in the Atlantic provinces, Cape Breton Highlands National Park is ground zero for coastal hiking and bad-ass meant literally cycling. In Newfoundland, Gros Morne adrenalizes in summer hiking and sea kayaking , while Marble Mountain takes over in winter skiing and snow-kiting.

Kayak with belugas, dogsled over the tundra and, of course, commune carefully! Historic sites mark the spots. Batoche National Historic Site tells the dark story. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, a precipice where bison herds leapt to their death, is another classic site. In , gold was found in the Klondike River. Those shiny, happy times are remembered in Dawson City, Yukon. Even the Yukon is getting in on the action, with the Yukon Conservation Society offering free nature hikes to help visitors appreciate the local environment.

Toronto has reclaimed a clutch of former industrial sites and turned them into parks and greenhouses. And Vancouver is lauded for local, sustainable eating habits. Many of its top restaurants, such as C Restaurant and Raincity Grill, source ingredients so they leave as small an eco-footprint as possible. As the earth warmed and the glaciers retreated, these immigrants began to trickle all across the Americas.

About years ago, a second major wave of migration from Siberia brought the ancestors of the Inuit to Canada. The new arrivals took one look at the North, sized it up as a tasty icebox filled with fish-and-seal dinners, and decided to hang around. These early Inuit were members of the Dorset Culture, named after Cape Dorset on Baffin Island, where its remains were first unearthed.

Around AD a separate Inuit culture, the whale-hunting Thule of northern Alaska, began making its way east through the Canadian Arctic. As these people spread, they overtook the Dorset Culture. The Thule are the direct ancestors of the modern Inuit. On the mild Pacific coast, the Haida, Nootka and other tribes lived in independent villages where they built cedar-plank houses and carved elaborate totem poles and canoes. Primarily buffalo hunters, they cunningly killed their prey by driving them over cliffs, such as at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump in southern Alberta.

The buffalo provided sustenance and the hides were used for tipis and clothes. Although often at war with each other, they were a sophisticated lot who lived in large farming communities, built sturdy longhouses and traded with other tribes. In the chilly boreal forest stretching across northern Canada, the Northeast Woodlands peoples endured a much harsher life.

The extinct Beothuk of Newfoundland also belonged to this group. Living in small nomadic bands, the various tribes hunted caribou, moose, hare and other animals, which they caught using snares and traps. Survival was even more of a challenge for arctic tribes such as the Inuit and Dene.

They migrated seasonally, hunting whales and big-game, and traveling by canoe or dogsled. They spent winters in igloos or simple wooden structures, and basically just tried to stay warm. In fact, he and his tribe of Scandinavian seafarers were the first Europeans in all of North America.

There would be no more visits from the outside for another to years. In , backed by the Spanish crown, Christopher Columbus went searching for a western sea route to Asia and instead stumbled upon some small islands in the Bahamas. In short order, hundreds of boats were shuttling between Europe and the fertile new fishing grounds.

Basques whalers from northern Spain soon followed. Several were based at Red Bay in Labrador, which became the biggest whaling port in the world during the 16th century.

By this time, the hunt was on not only for the Northwest Passage but also for gold, given the findings by Spanish conquistadors among the Aztec and Inca civilizations. Here he got wind of a land called Saguenay that was full of gold and silver.

But his interest perked back up a few decades later when felt hats became all the rage. Everyone who was anyone was wearing a furry hat and, as the fashion mavens knew, there was no finer chapeau than one made from beaver pelts.

With beavers pretty much extinct in the Old World, the demand for a fresh supply was strong. And so the race for control of the fur trade was officially on. The economic value of this enterprise and, by extension, its role in shaping Canadian history, cannot be underestimated. All because of a silly hat! In order to gain control of the distant lands, the first order of business was to put European bodies on the ground.

Exposed and difficult to defend, neither site made a good base for controlling the inland fur trade. The Acadian Genealogy Homepage www.

They caught a lucky break when a pair of disillusioned French explorers, Radisson and Des Groseilliers, confided that the best fur country actually lay to the north and west of Lake Superior, which was easily accessible via Hudson Bay. The English infuriated the French with such moves, and so the French kept right on galling the English by settling further inland.

Both countries had claims to the land, but each wanted regional dominance. They skirmished back and forth in hostilities that mirrored those in Europe, where wars raged throughout the first half of the 18th century. First, they had to quell uprisings by the Aboriginal tribes, such as the attack on Detroit by Ottawa Chief Pontiac. So the British government issued the Royal Proclamation of , which prevented colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains and regulated purchases of aboriginal land.

Though well-intentioned, the proclamation was largely ignored. The French Canadians caused the next headache. Tensions rose when the new rulers imposed British law that heavily restricted the rights of Roman Catholics the religion of the French , including the rights to vote and hold office. The British hoped their discriminatory policy would launch a mass exodus and make it easier to anglicize the remaining settlers.

Called United Empire Loyalists due to their presumed allegiance to Britain, many settlers were motivated more by cheap land than by actual love of king and crown.

The majority ended up in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, while a smaller group settled along the northern shore of Lake Ontario and in the Ottawa River Valley forming the nucleus of what became Ontario. Lower Canada retained French civil laws, but both provinces were governed by the British criminal code. The British crown installed a governor to direct each colony. The legislative branch consisted of an appointed Legislative Council and an elected Assembly, which ostensibly represented the interests of the colonists.

In reality, though, the Assembly held very little power, since the governor could veto its decisions. Not surprisingly, this was a recipe for friction and resentment. This was especially the case in Lower Canada, where an English governor and an English-dominated Council held sway over a French-dominated Assembly. Members of the conservative British merchant elite dominated the Executive and Legislative Councils and showed little interest in French-Canadian matters.

These ideas were adopted into the Union Act of Upper and Lower Canada soon merged into the Province of Canada and became governed by a single legislature, the new Parliament of Canada.

While most British Canadians welcomed the new system, the French were less than thrilled. Thus the united province was built on slippery ground. The decade or so following unification was marked by political instability as one government replaced another in fairly rapid succession.

Meanwhile, the USA had grown into a self-confident economic powerhouse, while British North America was still a loose patchwork of independent colonies. It became clear that only a less volatile political system would stave off these challenges, and the movement toward federal union gained momentum. And so began the modern, self-governing state of Canada, originally known as the Dominion of Canada. He sent the Ottawa-appointed governor packing and, in November , seized control of Upper Fort Garry, thereby forcing Ottawa to the negotiating table.

However, with his delegation already en route, Riel impulsively and for no good reason executed a Canadian prisoner he was holding at the fort. As a result, the then-pint-sized province of Manitoba was carved out of the NWT and entered the dominion in July Macdonald sent troops after Riel but he narrowly managed to escape to the USA.

He was formally exiled for five years in Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau declared a state of emergency and called in the army to protect government officials. The murder discredited the FLQ in the eyes of many erstwhile supporters and the movement quickly faded away.

The issue was put on the back burner for much of the s. To take effect, the so-called Meech Lake Accord needed to be ratified by all 10 provinces and both houses of parliament by Mulroney and Bourassa drafted a new, expanded accord, but the separatists picked it apart and it too was trounced. The rejection sealed the fate of Mulroney, who resigned the following year, and of Bourassa, who left political life a broken man. Relations between Anglos and Francophones hit new lows, and support for independence was rekindled.

Only one year after returning to power in , the PQ, under Premier Lucien Bouchard, launched a second referendum. The discovery of gold along the Fraser River in and in the Cariboo region in had brought an enormous influx of settlers to such goldmine boomtowns as Williams Lake and Barkerville. Once the gold mines petered out, though, BC was plunged into poverty.

In it joined the dominion in exchange for the Canadian government assuming all its debt and promising to link it with the east within 10 years via a transcontinental railroad. Macdonald rightly regarded the railroad as crucial in unifying the country, spurring immigration and stimulating business and manufacturing. It was a costly proposition, made even more challenging by the rough and rugged terrain the tracks had to traverse.

To entice investors, the government offered major benefits, including vast land grants in western Canada. Workers drove the final spike into the track at Craigellachie, BC, on November 7, As in Manitoba, they quickly clashed with government surveyors over land issues.

In , after their repeated appeals to Ottawa had been ignored, they coaxed Louis Riel out of exile to represent their cause.

Riel had the backing of the Cree, but times had changed: with the railroad nearly complete, government troops arrived within days. Riel surrendered in May and was hanged for treason later that year. In addition, the new railroad opened the floodgates to immigration. Between and about 4. This included large groups of Americans and Eastern Europeans, especially Ukrainians, who went to work cultivating the prairies. I think we can claim that it is Canada that shall fill the 20th century.

The issue took on even greater urgency when WWI broke out in But today, a growing number of Canadians see him as a hero who defended the rights of the oppressed against an unjust government. Statues of Riel now stand on Parliament Hill in Ottawa and outside the Manitoba Legislature in Winnipeg, where his boyhood home Click here and grave have become places of pilgrimage.

The University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon has named its campus theater, student center and pub after Riel. As the war dragged on and thousands of soldiers returned in coffins, recruitment ground to a halt. The government, intent on replenishing its depleted forces, introduced the draft in It proved to be a very unpopular move, to say the least, especially among French Canadians.

The conscription issue fanned the flames of nationalism even more. A U-boat launched a torpedo at an offshore freighter; it missed and struck inland at Bell Island. Under the government of William Lyon Mackenzie King, an eccentric fellow who communicated with spirits and worshipped his dead mother, Canada began asserting its independence.

Mackenzie King made it clear that Britain could no longer automatically draw upon the Canadian military, started signing treaties without British approval, and sent a Canadian ambassador to Washington.

This forcefulness led to the Statute of Westminster, passed by the British Parliament in Oddly, that right remained on the books for another half century. Today, Canada is a constitutional monarchy with a parliament consisting of an appointed upper house, or Senate, and an elected lower house, the House of Commons. Newfoundland finally joined Canada in Joey Smallwood, the politician who persuaded the island to sign up, claimed it would bring economic prosperity.

The conflict was sparked by a land claim: the town of Oka was planning to expand a golf course onto land that the Mohawk considered sacred. A day clash ensued, and one policeman died of gunshot wounds. The event shook Canada, and focused national attention on Aboriginal human rights violations and outstanding land claims. In the aftermath of Oka, a Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued a report recommending a complete overhaul of relations between the government and indigenous peoples.

Slow to respond at first, in the Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs issued an official Statement of Reconciliation that accepted responsibility for past injustices toward Aboriginal peoples. It specifically apologized for the policy of removing children from their families and educating them in underfunded government schools in the name of assimilation. Most importantly, though, it pledged to give indigenous peoples greater control over their land, resources, government and economy.

You can read the entire Statement of Reconciliation at www. To learn more about this and other land claims, Click here; for information on Aboriginal-owned businesses, Click here.

For a quarter century, it remained in the grip of ultra-conservative Maurice Duplessis and his Union Nationale party, with support from the Catholic Church and various business interests. Advances included expanding the public sector, investing in public education and nationalizing the provincial hydroelectric companies. In , Canada became the first country in the world to pass a national multicultural act and establish a federal department of multiculturalism. The new millennium has been kind to Canada.

The loonie took off around , thanks to the oil, diamonds and other natural resources fueling the economy. Tolerance marches onward, with medical marijuana and gay marriage both legalized recently. Expect the country to continue getting all glammed up before the world spotlight shines on it for the Winter Olympics in Vancouver.

Circa 25, BC Hot on the hoofs of juicy caribou and bison, the first humans arrive in Canada by crossing over the land bridge that once connected Siberia to North America. It belongs to no nation; rather it serves fishing fleets from all over Europe.

By the British claim it as the first colony of their Empire. He searches for gold and precious metals, but gets only chilled rocks. Still, he plunks down the tricolore to claim the land for France. Soon he commands 40 ships and men.

He eventually retires to France and becomes the Marquis of Savoy. Years later, the company morphs into The Bay department store chain. Some 14, men, women and children are forced onto ships during the Great Expulsion; many head to Louisiana in the USA. It lasts less than an hour and kills both commanding generals.

France takes it on the chin. Prospectors discover gold along the Fraser River in BC, spurring thousands of get-rich-quick dreamers to move north and start panning. Most remain poor. Queen Victoria celebrates with Canadian bacon for breakfast. However, she retains the right to keep her mug on the money and appoint a governor general.

The ban was supposed to be lifted within a few years, but depleted cod stocks never rebounded. Modern day warriors, indeed. Patients can buy ready-to-use buds, or seeds to grow their own. Nice, but with no sense of humor. Our differences with Americans may be subtle, but they are significant.

We are tolerant towards foreign cultures and celebrate their differences by encouraging multiculturalism. After all, we coined the term in and have it enshrined in our Charter of Rights and Freedoms. And we are open-minded when it comes to alternative lifestyles like same-sex marriage and lighting up a joint. According to almost every international institution, Canada rates in the top echelon in everything from public transit to freedom of the press to world business competitiveness.

It is a compassionate and very pleasant country to live in, even if you are old, poor, ill or different. Yet listen to us! We fret that multiculturalism might be leading to a splintered society with pockets of solitudes. And we are indignant about having to honor treaties we signed long ago with Aboriginals who refuse to simply fade into the sunset.

We are more a nation of debaters than people of action. Canadians are like one small family living in a very big house in the suburbs. If something really irks, we can always retreat to another room until our anger dissipates. Peace at any cost is an integral part of our heritage and psyche, and we are lucky to have never experienced war on our home turf. Despite the reality that Canadians have fought in overseas conflicts for the better part of a century, we see ourselves as a nation of peacekeepers; it was former prime minister Lester B Pearson who received a Nobel Peace Prize in for settling the Suez Crisis, an action that led to his being lauded as the father of peacekeeping.

A favorite quip is that the only thing unifying Canada is a universal hatred of successful, corporate, American-leaning Toronto, although a recent documentary on the subject revealed that no-one could say exactly why. Perhaps just to unite us. We may not have the sense of history of the UK, or the bravado and self-assuredness of the Aussies, but we do have our own quiet style that is the key to the miracle that has kept this complex, open society from falling apart or crashing into warring tribal factions.

We have learned that flexibility, compromise, tolerance, dialogue, a sense of humor and being nice just might be the glue that keeps this unlikely country together.

While the present is rosy, Canadians are nervous about a graying future; one in every seven Canadians is a senior over 65 , and the number of children under 14 years is at an all-time low.

By there will no longer be enough new workers to replace retiring baby boomers, the fastest-growing demographic. At the same time, many provinces have abolished mandatory retirement at What does a typical Canadian family look like? Mum and dad are raising 1. The gap between rich and poor in Canada is increasing and income growth for the working classes has slowed.

Canadians are borrowing more, especially to buy homes that have reached record prices in British Columbia, Alberta and Ontario. Kids will attend postsecondary education in numbers unrivaled in any other country with female students vastly outnumbering males , creating the most highly educated population per capita in the world.

Inside an average Canadian home all the latest electronic gadgets are present along with a car or two in the garage. One in 50 Quebecers is a Tremblay. Nationally, twice as many Canadians live in common-law relationships as Americans. In Canada became the fourth country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage; so far same-sex divorce has not yet been sanctioned.

Same-sex couples comprise only 0. But a federal bill to legalize possession of marijuana for personal use remains stalled. Leisure-loving Canadians work about three weeks fewer per year than Americans, and fewer than Australians, too. During the July and August school break, many kids spend a week or two in camp learning outdoor skills, languages and sports.

Canadians are known for winter sports like skiing and especially hockey, the national pastime, which is played by 1. But Canadians are much more likely to watch hockey than to play it.

Crime remains higher in western Canada than in the east. Since the mids the government has steadily paid down the federal debt and now regularly posts budgetary surpluses.

The Canadian dollar is at a year high against the US buck, and unemployment rates are at a year low. While the economy is dominated by the service industry, Canada is unusual among developed nations in the importance of natural resources such as logging, mining, wheat and oil.

Oil in particular is a major factor in the current economic climate. Balmy weather in lower British Columbia attracts winter-weary Canadians from further east. In recent years the oil boom in northern Alberta has drawn workers from across the country, particularly Atlantic Canada, where it is almost a tradition for young people to leave their unemployment-plagued home provinces to find work in other parts of Canada see boxed text. After all, it was the first country in the world to establish a federal department of multiculturalism.

Chinese immigrants were brought to the west to build the transcontinental railway in the s, and by the time of the most recent census , the country had become home to different ethnic groups speaking languages. Canada has one of the highest rates of immigration per capita in the world and accepts large numbers of refugees. With a growth rate of only 1. These 1. Among the Aboriginal population the average age is As in other nations such as Australia, the Aboriginal suicide rate, which is six times higher than for the rest of the population, is an alarming indicator of social crisis.

But the colonists saw treaties as a trade of land for compensation. More than 50 treaties were signed, first with the British and then the Canadian governments. Among those who did, many did not receive the land, money, food, medicine or housing they were promised. Since the s Aboriginal people have made land claims against the federal and provincial governments, an issue that gained urgency as plans were made to develop northern resources.

Where no treaties were signed, land claims now involve roughly half the total area of Canada. Resolution of land claims is complicated, as two levels of government are involved with all the ensuing debates surrounding land ownership and how treaties should be interpreted.

Some cases remain unresolved after half a century and frustration has mounted. A blockade by the Haida of British Columbia against logging an old-growth forest finally resolved a year land claims battle. There have been armed standoffs between Aboriginals and police like that at an Ontario reserve called Camp Ipperwash in , where police shot and killed Chippewa protestor Anthony Dudley George.

It was the first modern-day land-claim settlement. Settling land claims is an important step for Aboriginals to become stewards of their own future. Since the creation of Nunavut there has been widespread mineral exploration that gives a territory the potential for much-needed revenue.

Aboriginal land claims continue to capture the front page of Canadian newspapers. For the latest in aboriginal news, visit www. Dotted throughout are the remaining areas of Allophones, representing languages from Icelandic to Urdu. Immigration patterns vary in different regions of the country. BC has a long history of welcoming Japanese, Chinese and South Asian immigrants, and more recently large numbers of people from Eastern Europe and Iran.

Living conditions on reserves are often far below the rest of the country. In March Statistics Canada projected that the number of visible minorities in Canada will double by , and that by the majority of the populations of Toronto and Vancouver would be comprised of visible minorities. Equally important, the cultural revival and sense of pride that an outside interest in aboriginal culture has generated gives young people a purpose to learn about their heritage.

The further north in Canada you head, the more your travel dollars benefit Aboriginals. Increasingly, Aboriginals are opening their lives to visitors. Dine on maktaaq, smoked whitefish and caribou stew in the Tuktoyaktuk home of a traditional hunter or try a homestay with an Iqaluit family.

Many Canadians feel the system is too lenient on visitors who arrive in Canada and declare themselves refugees, which grants them a government-subsidized existence while they await a hearing on their status, which can take months or sometimes even years. Some refugees disappear into the system or illegally skip to the USA. International people-smuggling rackets often target Canada because the coastline is vast and penalties are less severe than in the USA. The racketeers coach their human cargo on how to declare refugee status, but often their ultimate destination is the USA, a quick but illegal trip over the border.

Return to beginning of chapter MEDIA Although often overshadowed by US airwaves and publications, Canada has a healthy media sector, with television and radio stations in both English and French. There is a free press with very little censorship of editorial content apart from that which might discourage advertising or attract libel suits, both simmering issues. Most Canadian newspapers are owned by large chains, which have been known to gobble up city-based alternative weeklies that might threaten competition.

In Canada, two-thirds of Muslims actively practice their faith, while only one-fifth of Christians regularly attend religious services.

Teeth are optional. Until very recently lacrosse was in danger of disappearing from the public consciousness, but the sport seems to be experiencing a renaissance with a new pro league. As such, the city is digging up every second road and making plans to hustle its street people off to Seattle when the world visits in February of that year.

Tickets are distributed by lottery, and then you have to take whatever event they give you. Holy biathlon, Batman! Unless you know someone.

With so many different cultures settling in Canada in the past generation, these sports are quickly emerging as alternatives to hockey for new communities. The origins of so many players on Canadian national and Olympic teams give a picture of the diversity and the challenges facing the country as it searches for its identity in the 21st century. Finally, lest we forget curling, that unique brand of frozen shuffleboard that captivates large segments of the Canadian population each winter.

A Canadian sport that actually eschews fighting, curling requires players to slide polished granite stones to a painted target at the other end of a long sheet of ice. Closest to the center wins a point in this sport that originated in Scotland.

Players use a broom to affect how much curl a stone will get. Today, literature is the creative endeavor by which Canada has most effectively defined and distinguished itself, and revealed its multicultural diversity of voices. And Canadian readers are darn proud of them. The festival website www. Translation is considered an art in Canada. The finest French-Canadian literature can be read in English.

Corner Gas and Little Mosque on the Prairie, the top two Canadian sitcoms, are both set in small-town Saskatchewan although only the former is filmed there.

Music Canadian fans are as loyal and adventurous as they come. Major galleries exhibit the strengths of their permanent collections and host traveling exhibitions from home and abroad. Travelers taking the back roads will discover plenty of local creativity, too.

In the midth century, Paul Kane and Cornelius Krieghoff both painted aboriginal subjects; works by them can be seen at the Royal Ontario Museum and the National Gallery.

Since the midth century there has been strong appreciation of and a market for aboriginal art, in particular Inuit sculpture. Check out www. By the s, professional theaters existed in most cities, but Canadian talent remained under-utilized. The increasingly adventurous Canadian Opera Company moved to new Toronto digs in Traditions brought to Canada by early settlers Scots, French etc and dance styles of more recent immigrant groups eg Ukrainian, Afro-Caribbean and Indian , are represented by amateur and professional ensembles, many of whom perform during cultural festivals.

Landscape-altering architecture for the Winter Olympics in Vancouver created much local controversy, including protests about the environmental footprint and the loss of low-income housing downtown.

But in recent years, the country that used to treat food as a way of fueling up for a hard winter of polar bear wrestling has undergone a two-course culinary renaissance.

For travelers, this means that eating and drinking in Canada can now be a highlight of a visit here, rather than a disappointing pit-stop necessity. With the Irish bringing potatoes to the table, the Germans rolling in with smoked sausages and the Chinese dropping by with dim sums, Canada has always been a finger-licking smorgasbord of food styles, making it the original home of fusion cooking.

This approach is still the cornerstone of dining here today: contemporary restaurants often add a dash of Japanese influence to their French cuisine or a pinch of East Indian Flair to their west coast seafood menu. But while tweaking traditional recipes is common in Canada, some dishes continue to define specific regions. These provincial soul foods directly reflect available local ingredients and the diverse influences of their cooks.

Next door, Nova Scotia visitors should save their appetites for butter-soft Digby scallops and rustic Lunenberg sausage, while the favored food of nearby Newfoundland and Labrador is cod: cod cheeks, cod tongues and cod-and-potato-blended fishcakes. Head next door to Saskatchewan for dessert, though. Backcountry foraging is also a big tradition in Canada: BC is a popular spot for mushroom pickers, New Brunswick is ideal for fiddleheads and almost everywhere else offers some kind of wild-growing seasonal fruit, including blackberries or blueberries.

Here you should hunt around for the dark, chocolaty or downright earthy tastes of beer from local producers such as Storm, Phillips, Dead Frog or Russell Brewing. If you time your visit well, you might catch a regional wine festival, enabling you to sample a few unfamiliar tipples as you rub shoulders with bleary-eyed local imbibers. Wine lovers are spoilt for choice when it comes to festivals.

There are also many family-oriented, midpriced eateries for those traveling with kids, and bars are usually just as interested in serving food as they are beer. While there are many variations, breakfast spots often open from 8am to 11am, lunch is usually offered between am and pm on weekdays and dinner is frequently on the menu from 5pm to pm daily. Midrange and family restaurants usually stay open all day. Closing times vary greatly and often depend on how busy the restaurant is on the day: hours are especially liquid in larger, tourist-friendly towns.

Service is generally excellent at Canadian restaurants and bars. Solo travelers are welcomed at most eateries, although family-oriented restaurants may baulk at sacrificing a large table to a lone nosher.

See opposite for information on tipping. Expect similar responses in the Maritimes and on the prairies, where the carnivorous approach is a way of life. Not surprisingly, vegans can expect an even rougher ride. The handy VegeDining website www. Check locations in BC www. Kids menus often rely heavily on breaded chicken and brightly colored mini pizzas. As an alternative, ask for a half-order of something more nutritious from the adult menu. Servers often work extra hard to keep kids happy, so consider adding a few dollars to your tip to reward exemplary service in the face of adversity.

On weekends, many restaurants serve brunch from as early as 8am, sometimes until as late as 4pm. BC and Ontario are the main regional producers. Table service is common in most pubs, although you can still order at the bar. A small number of areas still allow separate smoking rooms and patio smoking but this is also being slowly stubbed out.

Twinkle-eyed Bernard leads gumbooted groups across the muddy beach at Whiffen Spit, extolling enthusiastically on the culinary properties of the many seaweed varieties growing in the ocean garden around her. Running for a couple of hours, the Outer Coast Seaweeds tours , ; www. Call ahead for reservations. Get behind the cuisine of French Canada by getting to know the language.

For pronunciation guidelines, Click here. Diamonds, oil, gold and timber? Later generations, moving westward, found fertile soil in the prairies and gold in the Klondike. Much of this water fills the dips and dents of the massive Canadian Shield, a vast horseshoe-shaped region of Precambrian rock chiseled and gouged by glaciers and erosion over hundreds of millions of years.

In addition to Aboriginals, many of those living here are miners and loggers who exploit the enormous wealth of natural treasures, including nickel, copper, silver, gold and diamonds. Ottawa is the second-chilliest national capital, after Ulan Bator, Mongolia. In the Pacific region, coastal British Columbia has the most temperate climate, but is often drenched by rains.

Along with Alberta, the Yukon is part of the Cordillera region, which is also defined by other mountain ranges, most famously the Canadian Rockies. Dinosaur Provincial Park Alberta, ; Click here A fossil site with bones from 35 species of dinosaurs, some 75 million years old.

Gros Morne National Park Newfoundland, ; Click here Superb mosaic of coastal lowland, alpine plateau, fjords, glacial valleys, sheer cliffs, waterfalls and pristine lakes.

Waterton Lakes National Park Alberta, ; Click here An exceptional variety of plants and mammals in prairies and forests, and alpine and glacial features. That baby measured 7. Scientists say every to years the region gets hit by a major quake, ie one measuring 8. The last one occurred in , which means Canada is due for another spanking, oh, any day now? Whales, polar bear and the goofy, twig-eating moose are wildlife-watching favorites.

They live in forests throughout the country and are most active between dusk and dawn. If you see the legendary fur-ball, submit a report to the Sasquatch Research Initiative www.

This curious, slow-moving animal is covered in up to 30, quills, which form a formidable defense mechanism. When under threat, the porcupine vigorously lashes its tail, thereby dislodging loose quills as if throwing them. It feeds mainly on bark and tree buds, and used to be a staple of the Aboriginal diet. The quills are sometimes used in aboriginal decorative work. Its bigger relative, the caribou, is unusual in that both males and females sport enormous antlers.

Barren-ground caribou, which feed on lichen and spend most of the year on the tundra from Baffin Island to Alaska, are the most common. Still more humungous is the moose, whose skinny, ballerina-like legs support a hulking body with a distinctive shovel-like snout.

Males grow a spectacular rack of antlers every summer, only to discard it in November. Newfoundland has grown a huge moose population since they were first introduced there in the early s Click here. Neither moose nor elk are generally aggressive, and they will often generously pose for photographs. During mating season September , the males can become belligerent, so stay in your car.

The huge, heavy-shouldered, shaggy bison buffalo that once roamed the prairies in vast herds now exists only in parks. It is said that there were once as many as 70 million bison in North America. Their herds would often take days to pass by a single point. Keep your distance, though; for more, see the boxed text below. About half a million of these furry critters patrol the forests and bushland just about everywhere except Prince Edward Island, southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan.

But it never hurts to be prepared, as the old boy scout saying goes. The endangered grizzly bear and the smaller black bear both hang out in Canada, mostly in the Canadian Rockies. Just to confuse you, black bear are sometimes brown and some grizzlies are almost black. The way to tell them apart is to look for certain distinguishing characteristics: the grizzly has a dish-shaped face, small and rounded ears and a prominent shoulder hump.

Both grizzlies and black bear are intelligent opportunists who quickly learn that humans come equipped with tasty packages of food. Never feed these majestic animals. Always use bear-proof bins provided at campgrounds to store your food properly, and keep your campground tidy by picking up all scraps.

Bear basically only attack if their cubs are around or if they feel surprised or threatened. Your best defenses against surprising a bear are to remain alert, avoid hiking at night when bear feed and be careful traveling in places where visibility is obscured.

If the bear sees you, slowly back out of its path, avoid eye contact, speak softly and wave your hands above your head slowly. Never turn your back to the bear and never kneel down. If a bear charges, do not run or scream which may frighten the bear and make it more aggressive , because the bear may only be charging as a bluff.

Drop to the ground, crouch face down in a ball and play dead, covering the back of your neck with your hands and your chest and stomach with your knees. As we said before, bear attacks are really quite rare. Give the bear, and other animals, the respect they deserve and the space they need. If you see one on the side of the road, consider not stopping.

If you do decide to pull over, move on after a few minutes. If simple steps are taken to minimize human encounters, it will help ensure future generations of visitors have the chance to see wildlife that is still truly wild.

It stands up to a fearsome 3m tall and has a distinctive hump between its shoulders. Grizzlies are solitary animals with no natural enemies except humans. Although they enjoy an occasional snack of elk, moose or caribou, they usually fill their bellies with berries and other vegetation. Pretty much the only place to observe them is from late September to early November in Churchill, Manitoba, one of their major maternity denning grounds.

For more information about these fascinating creatures, Click here. Another formidable predator is the wolf, which can be every bit as fierce and cunning as is portrayed in fairy tales, although it rarely attack humans.

Belugas are the smallest, typically measuring no more than 4. They are chatty fellows who squeak, groan and peep while traveling in closely knit family pods. Each one chows down about 40 tons of krill per day. Minkes can grow to 10m and are likely to approach boats, delighting passengers with acrobatics as they, too, hurl themselves out of the water a bit more easily than the lumbering humpback. Everyone loves these cute little guys, a sort of waddling penguin-meets-parrot cross, with black-and-white feathers and an orange beak.

They hang out in the Atlantic provinces, especially Newfoundland. The true ruler of the sky, though, is the bald eagle, whose wingspan can reach more than 2m. It was Canadian banker Charles Broley who first connected the dots between DDT and the plummeting population of these regal birds. That was in the late s, and things have been looking way up since then.

Trees cover nearly half of the country, providing living space to roughly two-thirds of the estimated , species of plants, animals and micro-organisms living in Canada. Stretching from coast to coast and from the US border to the Arctic tree line, they are highly diversified and have adapted to the soil, climate and weather conditions. Further south, tundra transitions to taiga, better known as boreal forest, named after Boreas, the Greek god of the north wind.

Cold-tolerant conifers such as pine, fir and spruce thrive in this harsh climate of long winters and short but warm summers.

Ontario hosts the parkland zone, which marks the transition between the eastern forests and the prairies. Trembling aspen is the dominant tree. Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are best known for their flat prairie grasslands, now mostly covered in cultivated grains.

Short, mixed and tall grasses once blanketed this region but, except for a few protected pockets, these are a thing of the past. BC has the most diverse vegetation in the country. The Rocky Mountain forests consist of sub-alpine species such as Engelmann spruce, alpine fir and larches, with lodgepole pine and aspen at higher elevations. In the rainforest-like climate of the Pacific coast, the trees soar skyward. There are ancient, gigantic western red cedar, Douglas fir, western hemlock and Sitka spruce species.

Some are more than years old, making them veritable Methuselahs of the tree world. Actually, the pitcher plant chows down mostly on insects, captured via its water-filled trap. Keep an eye out next time you walk through a bog. Flip to it for the lowdown on activities, itineraries, costs and history. Each province also runs its own system of parks and reserves. There are literally hundreds of them, mostly used for recreation but also, to a certain extent, to protect wildlife and historic sites.

Many are just as spectacular as the national parks. The best-organized provincial parks offer similar infrastructure to their national cousins, including interpretive centers, equipment rental and campgrounds.

Parks in the territories tend to be small, simple and inexpensive to visit; they are often used for overnight camping, although facilities may be basic. It birthed Greenpeace, for crissake! The group launched from a Vancouver living room in Vancouver is also the home of environmental pioneer David Suzuki, a retired professor from the University of British Columbia UBC who has been writing about sustainable ecology for more than 30 years.

The Green Party www. Alberta and British Columbia offered the strongest support, Manitoba the least. Apparently not. Meanwhile, the clock ticks. The average annual temperature has increased by 0. Take the Yukon. Shorter winters have dissolved their ice-based seal-hunting habitat, and all of a sudden, nearby humans are starting to look like juicy T-bones Click here for more.

Climate change also has bizarre economic ramifications. And the Olympics are headed to Vancouver in , but will there be enough snow for the slopes and bobsleigh runs? Take as much as you want! In the early s, Atlantic Canada faced the horrifying fact that the cod were fished out. The greatest fishery in the world, in business for more than years, was now kaput.

Cod were even listed as endangered in For additional information, Click here. Polar Bear, meet Walrus. They used to be strangers, until global warming brought their habitats together. Most hiking and camping advice is common sense. First, know what you are getting into. Get trail maps and take a few minutes to talk to a ranger about trail conditions, dangers and closures. Rangers can also confirm if your abilities and equipment match the needs of your trip.

Once in the wild, do everything possible to minimize your impact. Stick to established trails and campgrounds. Use a gas stove for cooking or make fires in established fire pits only. When you leave, take out everything you brought in and remove every trace of your visit. Try to learn about local conservation, environmental and cultural issues before your trip and during your visit.

Ask questions and listen to what locals have to say. And finally, support tourism companies and environmental groups that promote conservation initiatives and long-term management plans. Along the same lines, companies strip huge areas of forest and soil cover to access coal, iron, nickel and other mineral resources.

These ore deposits are developed all the time, particularly in seldom-visited northern regions such as Labrador and the Northwest Territories, where there is little public scrutiny or attention. Recently there has been a spate of oil and natural gas development in the Atlantic provinces, much of it on the ocean floor, with untold consequences for marine life for an example of such actions, Click here.

In northern Alberta, oil is coaxed from oil sands, a messy process that requires huge amounts of energy and poisons the atmosphere with greenhouse gases Click here for more.

Nearby, plans are underway for a controversial km-long pipeline, the Mackenzie Gas Project, to be tunneled beneath the wilderness of the Northwest Territories. Their website www. Is that good enough? Stay tuned. Not even close. And I can explain it all in two simple words: endless and staggering. No matter what your ability, no matter what your taste, there is something here for you.

Adventures for the rank beginner or the seasoned veteran are all over the place, even just on the edge of, and sometimes within, city limits. Whatever outdoor activity you can imagine, it exists in the highest of quality, right here in Canada. But, for nearly half the year, much of Canada really is snow-covered, and hockey and beer-drinking really are favorite pastimes. But there is so much more here than that oversimplified pictorial and those stereotypical flannels.

Welcome to the most abundant, most breathtaking, least busy playground on the planet. Welcome to half the world. Hills in the flatlands, like Saskatchewan and southern Ontario, are built on available or creatively used geography river hills or garbage dumps. Damn cold. But instead of complaining about it, Canadians are apt to do something in it. Find a snow-covered hill not too big and slide uncontrollably downhill. Combine this motorized activity with backcountry skiing to access tons of powder.

Canadians have a chronic fishing problem. Fish from inside an ice shack, drill into the ice, turn on the space heater and drop your line. Snowpack ranges from 2m to 6m-plus, depending on how close the resort is to the Pacific Ocean. Medicine Hat, Alberta, with days sans rain. Cross-Country Nordic Skiing Instead of swishing through the snow, go straight on a set of Nordic skis. Most ski resorts in Canada offer a groomed network of cross-country ski trails which are much cheaper than a downhill lift ticket.

Compare lung capacity with Canadian national team members at the Olympic site in Canmore, Alberta. Ski Touring Ski touring, downhill skiing with a backpack instead of a lift, is the cheapest way to tap into the deep and dry snow that is world-renowned in BC. Rogers Pass in Glacier National Park has the most beautiful glacier tours and tree skiing within a single-day tour.

Or fly into a backcountry lodge like Blanket Glacier Chalet www. BC towns like Revelstoke, Nelson and Golden are touring hubs and have a number of shops that can provide gear, maps and information on snow conditions, where to park etc. That said, Canada has revolutionized mountain biking and provides an expansive landscape for two-wheeled exploration.

The entire 18,km trail some of it river routes will link communities from coast to coast to coast and provide for multi-use access to cyclists, snowmobilers, horseback riders and hikers.

Check www. Most popular ski areas like Panorama www. Or you could choose shorter regional rides. The east coast, with more small towns and less emptiness, is a fantastic place to pedal, either as a single-day road ride or a multi-day trip.

Sure, we use plastic and fiberglass today, but boat design and techniques have hardly changed. No longer used for hunting, this double-bladed, covered-deck paddlesport is still the most efficient human-powered way to move across lakes and along coastlines. Make sure you have a solid Eskimo Roll for righting yourself when you flip.

Luckily www. As old as kayaking, and equally Canadian, is the canoe. Travel a thousand miles by train and you are a brute; pedal five hundred on a bicycle and you remain basically a bourgeois; paddle a hundred in a canoe and you are already a child of nature.

Here are some of our favorites, to help you decide which way to turn your toes. Also, k. Also visit the Parks Canada site www. Watch wild animals, cross unbridged rivers and see not a soul. Access is via Whitehorse. Take a compass and GPS; the alpine plateau is crisscrossed by a web of caribou trails.

An offshoot will head northwards from Calgary through the Yukon to Tuktoyaktuk in the Northwest Territories, with a branch extending east through Nunavut to Chesterfield Inlet on Hudson Bay. The TCT will be the longest such trail in the world, linking millions of travelers, hundreds of communities and dozens of landscapes. Its entire length will take about days to cycle, days to ride on horseback or days to walk.

The now-disbanded organization in charge of the celebrations wanted to leave a lasting legacy, and provided enough seed money to launch the project in This entitles them to have their name inscribed on one of dozens of Trail Pavilions along the route. So far approximately , people have immortalized themselves in this fashion.

The TCT is knitted together from existing and new trails. Much of it, including all of the Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island sections, will run along former railway tracks. For now, the TCT remains a work in progress.

More than half of it is currently unstable; it is scheduled for completion in the fall of From here you can march through dense spruce and pine forests that burst into a stunning bright-yellow canopy in the fall. Then ascend into alpine meadows that are carpeted with wildflowers and surrounded by crumbling glaciers and azure lakes.

This trail network weaves together pristine lakes with some of the largest peaks in the Rockies. And the BC Parks system www. There are sizable mountains out east, too. For the serious backpacker looking for the least beaten path and the biggest mountains east of the Canadian Rockies, plan on visiting Torngat Mountain National Park in Labrador.

Though portions are near cities like Hamilton and Toronto, it is surprisingly serene. Backroad Mapbooks will show you the way. Outdoor recreation and camping overviews accompany each book, but make sure you cross-reference with the locals.

Canmore, just outside Banff, is the ideal place for beginners and beyond. Climbing shops, a climbing school www. All levels of climbers bask in the spring sun while climbing the plus gneiss and nice, too! It features hundreds of tours, from day trips to summit missions to epic traverses. While Canadians are practically born on skates, it might take you a couple of hours to get the hang of it. Skating has spawned many a Canadian pastime and takes regional forms.

Grassroots hockey, aka pond hockey, takes place in communities across Canada every night on a frozen surface.